by Suparna Roy
Assistant Professor
Abstract
Genocidal rape is the mass sexual violence carried out by a particular group against bodies which carries identities, the oppressor regards as the peripheral. The orchestrated gender construction merges with the war-time discourse when ‘bodies’ are analyzed from the lens of feminist discourse. The existence of power as Gayatri C. Spivak puts it “Power is nothing if not opposed to what it is not…make the latter’s form of expression concretely possible” (Spivak, x). The power around body-politics circumfuses the essence of ethico-ontological and socio-cultural dynamics of marked body-parts. The politics of vagina is not just a hyperbole of life, rather a colonized visual perception of what ‘just the vaginas must not signify’. Genocidal Rape in war deciphers how the situating bodies are placed in the cultural context of the phallogocentric power and control. Since war is fought on the ground of bodies including their ontological essence, the body-politics their metaphysical presentation becomes a patriarchal product. The functional display of body when gets narrated from a queer-feminist lens questions the body and identities separately; to which as Judith Butler regards in her book Gender Trouble, that, body is just words and identities are imposed faculties of presentations based on situations. Henceforth, my paper shall present how the genocidal rape committed by the Russians, Talibans in Ukraine and Afghanistan respectively calls our focus on the perspective, which objectifies yonis as ground for gun winning and phallus domination.
Keywords– Yoni, War, Body, Genocide, Phallogocentric Order
Introduction
The term “genocidal rape” refers to the use of sexual violence as a tool of genocide, typically in the context of armed conflicts and wars. It’s a deeply disturbing aspect of warfare, and unfortunately, it’s a reality in various parts of the world, though not always explicitly labeled as such. Efforts to address and prevent genocidal rape include international laws such as the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which recognizes sexual violence as a war crime, crime against humanity, and in certain circumstances, as an act of genocide. However, despite these legal frameworks and growing awareness, genocidal rape continues to be perpetrated in conflicts around the globe. It’s crucial for the international community to continue advocating for the protection of civilians during conflicts, prosecution of perpetrators, and support for survivors. Additionally, addressing the root causes of conflicts and promoting gender equality and women’s rights are essential steps toward preventing such atrocities.
The use of sexual violence against women as a weapon of war, including genocidal rape, is a heinous and pervasive crime that inflicts unimaginable suffering on its victims and their communities. Women and girls are disproportionately targeted in conflicts, and sexual violence is often employed as a deliberate tactic to terrorize, humiliate, and destroy communities. Genocidal rape not only causes immediate physical and psychological harm but also has long-lasting consequences for survivors, including stigma, social ostracization, unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, and trauma-related mental health disorders. Addressing genocidal rape requires a comprehensive approach that includes prevention, protection, prosecution, and support for survivors. Efforts to prevent genocidal rape must address the root causes of conflict, promote gender equality, and challenge the patriarchal attitudes that perpetuate violence against women. Education, awareness-raising, and community mobilization are essential components of prevention efforts. It is imperative to prioritize the protection of women and girls in conflict zones by strengthening legal frameworks, ensuring accountability for perpetrators, and deploying peacekeeping forces with a mandate to prevent sexual violence. Perpetrators of genocidal rape must be held accountable for their crimes. This requires ensuring access to justice for survivors, conducting thorough investigations, and prosecuting perpetrators in fair and impartial trials, whether at the national or international level. Survivors of genocidal rape require comprehensive support services, including medical care, psychosocial support, legal assistance, and access to livelihood opportunities. It is essential to empower survivors to rebuild their lives and communities in the aftermath of conflict.
Rage and Genocidal Violence
Rage can certainly be a component in genocidal violence, but it’s important to understand that genocide is not merely the result of unchecked anger or individual fury. Rather, it is typically a systematic and organized process driven by complex social, political, and ideological factors. Genocidal violence often arises from a combination of factors, including Political agendas, wherein, Genocide is often perpetrated by those in positions of power seeking to achieve specific political goals, such as ethnic cleansing, territorial expansion, or the elimination of perceived threats to their authority. Ideologies rooted in hatred, intolerance, and dehumanization of certain groups can fuel genocidal violence. Propaganda and rhetoric that demonize targeted populations are frequently used to justify and incite mass atrocities. Deep-seated social divisions, such as ethnic, religious, or racial tensions, can be exploited by perpetrators of genocide to sow discord and mobilize support for violence against targeted groups. Past conflicts, injustices, and historical animosities between groups can serve as catalysts for genocide, perpetuating cycles of violence and revenge. While rage and individual emotions may play a role in specific instances of genocidal violence, it’s essential to recognize that genocide is a systematic and deliberate crime that involves careful planning, coordination, and often the complicity of state institutions.
Rape is a deeply traumatic experience that can have profound and long-lasting effects on survivors. The trauma resulting from rape can manifest in various ways, including physical, emotional, and psychological consequences. Rape can evoke a range of intense emotions, including fear, anger, shame, guilt, and helplessness. Survivors often struggle with feelings of self-blame and may experience a loss of trust in others and in the world around them. Rape can lead to significant psychological trauma, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such as intrusive memories, flashbacks, nightmares, and hypervigilance. Survivors may also experience depression, anxiety, mood swings, and difficulty concentrating or sleeping. Survivors of rape may face social stigma, ostracization, and judgment from others, which can exacerbate feelings of isolation and shame. Relationships with family, friends, and intimate partners may be strained, and survivors may struggle with intimacy and trust in future relationships. The effects of rape can persist long after the assault, impacting various aspects of survivors’ lives, including their mental health, relationships, education, employment, and overall well-being. Without appropriate support and resources, survivors may continue to suffer from the effects of trauma for years to come. It’s essential for survivors of rape to receive compassionate and comprehensive support, including access to medical care, counseling, advocacy, and legal assistance. Healing from the trauma of rape is a complex and individual process, and survivors may benefit from a combination of therapeutic interventions, social support networks, and self-care strategies.
Genocide and Indian in Partition
During partition, 75,000 women are believed to have been abducted and raped, mostly by men of different religions than their own. Women were compelled to have sex with men of different religions in order to damage their race’s alleged ‘purity’. Some ladies were publicly paraded, while others had their bodies maimed or tattooed with symbols of the opposite religion. Many of these women became pregnant and had children, who were forcibly removed from them. Some older ladies whose husbands had been assassinated had their possessions taken, while others were kidnapped and exploited as servants by other households. Male family members have occasionally killed female relatives to protect them from becoming victims of crimes committed by guys from the other community.
The Central Recovery Operation was indeed a significant initiative undertaken by the governments of India and Pakistan in the aftermath of the partition in 1947. The partition of British India into India and Pakistan resulted in widespread violence, displacement, and communal tensions, with numerous reports of abduction, forced conversion, and forced marriages, particularly targeting women. The joint declaration by the Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan aimed to address the issue of abducted women and restore them to their families. It underscored the commitment of both governments to not recognize forced conversions and marriages and to make every effort to trace abducted individuals and reunite them with their families. However, despite the noble intentions behind the Central Recovery Operation, its implementation faced numerous challenges. The chaotic and violent conditions during the partition made it difficult to effectively carry out the rescue and repatriation of abducted women. Moreover, the deep-seated communal tensions and mistrust between communities further complicated the process. Additionally, the issue of citizenship and belonging became highly contentious, particularly for abducted women who were forcibly married into communities different from their own. While theoretically, every citizen had the right to choose which country to belong to during the partition, abducted women often found themselves deprived of this choice, as they were forcibly assimilated into communities other than their own. The Central Recovery Operation serves as a poignant reminder of the human cost of partition and the challenges of reconciliation and justice in its aftermath. It highlights the complex legacy of communal violence and displacement that continues to shape the histories and identities of both India and Pakistan.
The partition of India in 1947 was accompanied by widespread violence and displacement, particularly in the Punjab region, where communal tensions were especially high. The actions of various groups including Sikh jathas (militant groups) contributed to the violence and resulted in the abduction of women from different communities. In the Punjab region, Sikh jathas, supported by the rulers of semi-autonomous princely states, were involved in coordinated efforts to oust Muslims from East Punjab in anticipation of partition. These actions resulted in a disproportionate number of abducted Muslim women compared to Hindu and Sikh women. The involvement of Sikh jathas and the support they received from princely states exacerbated the communal violence and added to the suffering of individuals caught in the conflict. The partition border overlapped with these princely states, further complicating the situation and leading to heightened tensions. Following partition, India and Pakistan worked to repatriate the abducted women, with Muslim women being sent to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh women to India. This repatriation effort was part of broader initiatives aimed at addressing the humanitarian consequences of partition and restoring some semblance of normalcy to the affected populations. The repatriation process, however, was not without challenges, and many abducted women faced difficulties reintegrating into their communities and rebuilding their lives. The partition of India left a lasting legacy of trauma and displacement, with profound implications for the social and political dynamics of the region.
In contrast to previous riots, women were targeted in Calcutta’s direct action day riots. Many Hindu women were kidnapped during the Noakhali uprising. Violence against women happened during the 1946 Muslim massacres in Bihar. Thousands of people have been kidnapped in Patna district alone. Several Muslim women in Bihar committed suicide by jumping into wells. In November 1946, Hindu rioters in Garhmukteshwar tortured Muslim women to stripping, nude processions, and rape. In Amritsar, Sikhs exhibited naked Punjabi Muslim women, who were then publicly raped and burnt on fire in the street. Systematic violence against women began in Rawalpindi in March 1947, with Muslim mobs targeting Sikh women.Many Hindu and Sikh villages were wiped out. Thousands of Hindus and Sikhs were killed, forcibly converted, and frequently circumcised in public. Children were kidnapped, and women were abducted, paraded naked, raped openly, and ‘burn alive once their flesh had satiated carnal lust’. The official death toll in Rawalpindi was 2,263. Before further attacks, many Sikh women committed suicide by diving into water wells to defend their honour and prevent conversion.
The Partition of India in 1947 led to widespread violence, including the abduction and displacement of women from various religious communities. Exact figures are difficult to ascertain due to various estimates and limited documentation from that time. Leonard Mosley suggested a total of 100,000 abducted girls across all sides, but estimates from Indian and Pakistani governments, as well as other scholars, vary. The Indian government estimated that around 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted in Pakistan, while the Pakistani government estimated approximately 50,000 Muslim women were abducted in India. Andrew Major’s estimate suggests that 40,000 to 45,000 women, with twice as many Muslims as Hindu and Sikh women, were abducted in Punjab during the Partition riots. Masroor estimated 60,000 abducted Muslim women, whereas Begum Tassaduq Hussain suggested 90,000. On the other hand, Urvashi Butalia, specializing in Partition violence against women, and endorsed by Indian scholars Roshni Sharma, Priyanca Mathur Velath, and historian Anwesha Sengupta, estimated that 25,000 to 29,000 Hindu and Sikh women were affected compared to 12,000 to 15,000 Muslim women. Gurbachan Singh Talib estimated 50,000 abducted Hindu and Sikh women in West Pakistan, while M. A. Khan proposed a figure of 100,000. These varying estimations underscore the complexity and tragedy of the violence during the Partition period.
Ukraine and Genocide
The situation in Ukraine, particularly in regards to the conflict in the eastern regions of Donetsk and Luhansk, is complex and multifaceted. The question of whether the atrocities in Ukraine constitute genocide is incredibly significant and warrants thorough scholarly examination. Context is paramount in understanding the complexities of such a sensitive issue. Academic contributions that delve into the Ukrainian context provide valuable insights that can help to inform our understanding of the situation. It’s essential to approach this topic with sensitivity, recognizing the historical, cultural, and political nuances at play in Ukraine. By engaging in rigorous analysis that considers the local context, scholars can contribute meaningfully to the ongoing discourse surrounding this critical issue. On this, Prof. Andrea Graziosi, University of Naples states, “In the case of the Holodomor, this was the first genocide that was methodically planned out and perpetrated by depriving the very people who were producers of food of their nourishment (for survival). What is especially horrific is that the withholding of food was used as a weapon of genocide and that it was done in a region of the world known as the ‘breadbasket of Europe’.” Florence Aubenas’s investigation into the sexual abuse of Ukrainian women by Russian soldiers sheds light on a deeply distressing aspect of the conflict. Sexual violence in times of war is a grave violation of human rights, and it’s essential to confront and address these atrocities. By courageously sharing testimonies, survivors contribute to breaking the silence surrounding this taboo topic and emphasize the urgent need for accountability and justice. Aubenas’s work not only exposes the extent of the trauma endured by Ukrainian women but also serves as a call to action to address and prevent such atrocities in conflict zones worldwide. The Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine’s findings regarding sexual violence perpetrated by Russian soldiers during the invasion are deeply disturbing and highlight the extreme brutality of the conflict. The use of sexual violence, including mass rape, as a weapon of war constitutes a heinous violation of international law and human rights principles. The fact that victims span such a wide age range underscores the indiscriminate nature of these atrocities and the profound impact on individuals and communities. It’s imperative that these findings are thoroughly investigated and that perpetrators are held accountable for their actions. Additionally, comprehensive support and resources must be provided to survivors to address their physical, psychological, and social needs in the aftermath of such traumatic experiences.
The report from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) provides critical insights into the risks of sexual violence during the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The identified risks, including increased military presence in civilian areas, destruction of infrastructure, internal displacement, and high numbers of women and girls leaving Ukraine, underscore the vulnerability of civilians, particularly women and girls, during conflict situations. The alarming reports of gang rape, gunpoint sexual assaults, and rapes in front of children highlight the brutal reality faced by Ukrainian women and the weaponization of sexual violence in this conflict. The disproportionate number of cases allegedly perpetrated by Russian or Russian-aligned combatants underscores the urgent need for accountability and justice. The OHCHR’s documentation of cases of conflict-related sexual violence, as well as ongoing investigations by Ukrainian law enforcement authorities, are crucial steps toward addressing these atrocities and providing support to survivors. It’s imperative that the international community continues to monitor and respond to instances of sexual violence in conflict zones, ensuring that perpetrators are held accountable and survivors receive the assistance they need to heal and rebuild their lives.
Conclusion
The urgency of addressing violence against women during times of war cannot be overstated. In conflict zones, women and girls are disproportionately affected by various forms of violence, including sexual violence, exploitation, trafficking, and other abuses. This violence is often systematic and widespread, perpetrated by both state and non-state actors as a means to exert control, intimidate populations, and undermine the social fabric of communities. Such atrocities not only inflict immediate physical and psychological harm on individual victims but also have far-reaching consequences for families, communities, and societies as a whole. One of the most pressing reasons for urgency is the sheer scale of the problem. Studies and reports from conflict-affected regions consistently highlight the prevalence of violence against women as a pervasive and alarming issue. From the Democratic Republic of Congo to Syria, from Myanmar to South Sudan, women and girls face heightened risks of sexual violence and exploitation amid the chaos and breakdown of social order that accompany armed conflict. Without immediate and concerted action, the suffering of countless women and girls will continue unabated, with devastating consequences for generations to come. Furthermore, addressing violence against women during wartime is not only a matter of humanitarian concern but also a fundamental issue of human rights and international law. The Geneva Conventions and other international legal instruments explicitly prohibit acts of sexual violence and other forms of violence against civilians during armed conflict. Failure to uphold these principles not only perpetuates the suffering of individual victims but also undermines the integrity of the international legal framework and the credibility of the institutions tasked with enforcing it. Moreover, the urgency of addressing violence against women in conflict zones is compounded by the fact that such violence often perpetuates cycles of violence and instability. When women and girls are targeted for sexual violence and other abuses, their communities are destabilized, trust in authorities is eroded, and prospects for reconciliation and peace are undermined. Thus, effectively addressing violence against women is not only a moral imperative but also a strategic imperative for achieving sustainable peace and security in conflict-affected regions. The urgency of addressing violence against women during times of war cannot be overstated. It requires immediate and concerted action at all levels, from grassroots initiatives to international interventions, to prevent further atrocities, protect victims, hold perpetrators accountable, and address the root causes of such violence. Only by recognizing the urgency of this issue and responding with urgency and determination can we hope to build a world where women and girls are safe and secure, even in the midst of conflict.
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