Former Austrian Foreign Minister Ursula Plassnik agreed: “It’s not just China and India — it’s women who are the emerging power of the 21st century!”
Introduction
Equality of men and women are a question of human rights and a prerequisite for social justice. The Government of India had ushered in the new millennium by declaring the year 2001 as ‘Women’s Empowerment Year’ to focus on a vision ‘where women are equal partners like men’. There has been shift in policy approaches from the concept of ‘welfare’ in the seventies to ‘development’ in the eighties and to ’empowerment’ in the nineties. India’s economy is growing at a phenomenal rate with a flourishing democracy. India has undergone extraordinary socioeconomic and demographic changes. Yet, it is at cross-roads today. It is far from reaching its true potential as growth is not uniform across sectors. Large cross-sections of the population remain outside its purview. Minorities, weaker sections and women are some of the most excluded communities in India.
The minority communities served by the Ministry of Minority Affairs are Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis), which have been notified as minority communities under Section 2 (c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Although women as a group itself can be viewed as a minority, the special conditions surrounding the plight of marginalized women within the larger group makes it imperative to study minority groups within this minority, i.e. women belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and religious minorities. If minority women are to fully enjoy all of their rights, both as women and as members of minority communities, they must be empowered to claim their rights. Frequently minority women face double discrimination due to their status as women and members of minorities. For the purpose of this paper, however, focus would be on SC and ST women as there is a complete paucity of empirical observations of the representation of religious minorities within different institutions. To summarize, women on the whole suffers discrimination and injustice in all stages of her life.
Gender Inequalities: Empirical Trends
Gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life. Equality between men and women exists when both sexes are able to share equally in the distribution of power and influence; have equal opportunities for financial independence; enjoy equal access to education and the opportunity to develop personal ambitions. ‘Women’s empowerment’ is the ability to exercise full control over one’s actions. India’s poor performance on women’s empowerment and gender equality is reflected in many indicators. It is deeply rooted in entrenched attitudes, societal institutions, and market forces. Feminist scholars helped to move these concerns onto the gender and development agenda. Their contributions drew attention to the unequal power relations which blocked women’s capacity to participate and influence others. Addressing women’s issues requires recognizing the fact that women are a diverse group, in the roles they play as well as in characteristics such as age, social status, urban or rural orientation and educational attainment. Although women may have many interests in common, their life styles and the choices available to them vary widely.
A critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a focus on identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more autonomy to manage their own lives. The roles that men and women play in society are not biologically determined; they are socially determined and changeable. The Constitution of India grants equality to women in various fields of life. The discrimination and deep-rooted gender bias still exists in all sectors on the basis of caste, community, religious affiliation and class. A large number of women are either ill equipped or not in a position to propel themselves out of their traditionally unsatisfactory socio-economic conditions. They are poor, uneducated and insufficiently trained. They are often absorbed in the struggle to sustain the family physically and emotionally and are discouraged from taking interest in affairs outside home. Female infanticide continues to be common. Statistics show that there is still a very high preference for a male child in states like UP, MP, Punjab etc. The male to female ratio is very high in these states. In 2008, for gender equality, India was 122nd in the ranking among 168 countries by WHO. In India due to gender-based discrimination, female life expectancy is lower than that for males. A report of the High Level Committee on the social, economic and educational status of the Muslim community of India (popularly known as the Sachar report) had highlighted the fact that India’s largest minority group, the Muslim numbering 13.83 crore, have been left out of the development trajectory and within this group Muslim women are doubly disadvantaged.
A review of government’s various programmes for women empowerment such as Swashakti, Swayamsidha, Streeshakti, Balika samrudhi yojana and various other projects reveal that little has been done or achieved through these programmes. Patriarchy continues to be embedded in the social system in many parts of India, denying a majority of women the choice to decide on how they live. There is strong evidence that gender equality can promote economic growth. However, the fact that economic growth promotes gender equality – is less strong. Women have not actively participated in their own emancipation due to their lack of economic independence and illiteracy.
Constraints on Women’s Options
Women make up 52% of our country’s population. Hence there can be no progress unless their needs and interests are fully met. The stress on choice and preferences as the explanation for women’s choices needs to be problematized. A series of factors, including literacy and education, language, time, cost, geographical location of facilities, social and cultural norms, and women’s computer and information search and dissemination skills constrain women’s access to the outside world. Frequently minority women face double or intersectional discrimination due to their status as women and members of minorities, which can result in unique challenges and barriers to their full enjoyment of their rights, including their rights to education, to participation in decision making and political life, and their effective participation in economic and social life.
UNFPA’s work in the area of gender equality and women’s empowerment is firmly grounded in international law. Women’s economic participation is marked by three trends in the global economy: increasing feminization of the labor force, increased participation in the informal or vulnerable economy, and migrating to work in the service industry. As the World’s Women report notes, normative, procedural, and cultural changes need to be undertaken in the political realm for there to be real gender equality goals. Inclusive growth, as defined by IDRC, is growth which ensures opportunities for all sections of the population, with a special emphasis on the poor, particularly women and young people, who are most likely to be marginalized. If minority women are to fully enjoy all of their rights, both as women and as members of minority communities, they must be empowered to claim their rights.
From Survival to Accumulation
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its preamble, fundamental rights, fundamental duties and directive principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to adopt measures, a position; indiscrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of democratic polity, laws, developmental policies, plans and programmes are aimed at women’s advancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions to secure rights of women. The women’s movement and a widespread network of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have contributed in inspiring initiatives for the empowerment of women.
Democracy like India, where the identity of a woman is not manifested only in terms of gender, it would be wrong to expect that women would work as a single group towards their empowerment. In the political field, the reservation for women is a significant step forward towards their political empowerment. Political presence or ‘empowerment through representation’ is crucial since in a liberal democratic set up the actions and deliberations of some people or some institutions at one place affect the lives of many at other places. On the issue of political empowerment through representation, there is one set of arguments that favour a “top-down” approach whereby advocating a “symbolic recognition” of the disadvantaged groups, while another set of arguments favour a “bottom-up” approach that argue that disempowered groups need to be first made aware of their “disempowered status” and then measures should be taken to facilitate their empowerment in various fields. Empowering Minority Women through Local Activities i.e., political empowerment of minority women through affirmative action in India’s is represented through Panchayati Raj Institutions. Understanding the impact of the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, which reserved 33% of all seats for women in the PRIs, is of great interest. There is a high degree of variation in the results of the implementation of this Act. The most crucial aspect of the 73rd Amendment Act, is the provision whereby one-third of all seats in the PRIs are reserved for women (including women belonging to SC and ST).7 Seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) are in proportion to their number in the population of each region. In the country as a whole, SCs constitute 16% percent and STs 6% of the population and about 22.5 percent of the total seats reserved for women are to be allotted to women belonging to these categories.
However, there are several cases of positive changes brought about by the implementation of the quota system where SC/ST women have been observed to bring about socio-economic and political changes. In a country like India, where society is “highly gender-segregated”, quotas for women have “an additional relevance”. Studies should take into account the differential impact of PRI quotas and the role of class, caste, ethnicity and religion. Affirmative action through the 73rd Amendment Act had created a massive rise in the numerical strength of women in PRIs. However, the elected women members continue to suffer their hyppocratic roles: “their ostensible power in the panchayat and their relative powerlessness within the home”.
Special attention to the causes of women was given by the fifth five-year plan. For considering the grievances and preventing the atrocities against women a National Commission for Women (NCW) was set up in 1990. The leadership development training scheme shall be implemented by the Ministry of Minority Affairs through organizations which shall take up different issues such as: the challenges that one face within the local community; what do one need in order to overcome the challenges as a woman leader etc. India is now witnessing a steady improvement in the enrolment of women in schools, colleges and even in professional institutes. Twenty-six laws have been enacted so far to protect women from various crimes. The recent law on the ‘protection of women against domestic violence’ satisfies the long pending demand of the women activities. Women’s movements in India have been successful in getting legislation against abortions and have also focused on public awareness campaigns that promote the value of daughters. National institutions working on gender issues, human rights and minority rights, play a role in empowering minority women. The establishment of positive provisions including a policy framework for minority women and the adoption of temporary special measure work to eliminate discrimination against minority women.
Equally, non-governmental organizations have developed projects and programme to inform women about their rights and to help them to overcome the challenges to claiming them. As an all female group SEWA (the Self-Employed Women’s Association) promotes and fosters the idea that women are powerful and capable. Equally, projects aimed at assisting women to develop skills or begin small businesses, and others in micro-finance and information technology, have been successful, allowing women to generate income. Women of India are now uplifted and emancipated and granted equal status with men in all walks of life-political, social, domestic and educational. Today, women are emerging as leaders in growing range of fields: be it aeronautics, medicine, space, engineering, law, politics, education, business etc. One can just name the profession and women presence is there, all that needed in today’s world in their empowerment. In India, the empowerment process has already begun.
There is still a great divergence between the constitutional position and stark reality of deprivation and degradation. The prevalence of corrupt practices, violence, societal cleavages based on caste, class, religion clubbed with the dominant male discourse in rural Indian society have created a situation where women in political decision making have been reduced to mere ‘proxies’ thereby impeding the mission of empowering women politically through affirmative action. Even after half a century of independence, women have mostly remained outside the domain of power and authority. Mere reservation will not solve the problem unless and until women are given commensurate powers to function effectively and they themselves become more conscious and aware of their rights and duties.
Some Policy Options
Gender inequality is not a problem without solution. In fact, greater gender equality and empowerment is possible. How can the community achieve the goal of gender equality and the empowerment of women? There are many practical steps and positive actions that can reduce inequalities based on gender, inequalities that restrict the potential to reduce poverty and empower women achieving high levels of wellbeing in society. Globalization has had a significant impact on women’s work in different spheres. It is important to usher in changes in societal attitudes and perceptions with regard to the role of women in different spheres of life.
- Without leadership and political will, meeting the goal will not be possible. Political commitment at the highest international and national levels is essential to institute the policies that can trigger social change and to allocate the resources necessary for gender equality and women’s empowerment.
- The Women’s reservation policy bill is a very different and sad story as it is repeatedly being debated and scuttled in parliament. In the Panchayati Raj system, however, women have been given representation as a sign of political empowerment. A minimum quota for women parliamentarians is recommended. It is imperative to identify groups of women who are most marginalized and vulnerable, so that interventions address their specific needs and concerns.
- Gender inequality is embedded in a series of other systemic inequalities, including economic. Addressing the unjust economic situation of poor women is an important aspect of addressing gender inequality. There is a direct correlation between women’s health and economic empowerment. Economic empowerment of women will facilitate social and political empowerment. Projects and programs that increase and improve access to services in rural areas, and that target rural women with specially adapted services to respond to their needs, will reap incremental benefits. Provide support for business women and female entrepreneurs, and greater protection for women workers. Poverty eradication policies need to be implemented.
- Increasing support for women’s civil society groups will undoubtedly reap returns as they work through the increasing number of community driven development programs which have an immense coverage at local level in different region and offers opportunities to local level women.
- Political and legal remedies are not enough, because even if the law supports equal pay for women, women without education or job skills remain left behind. Affirmative actions that strengthen women’s representation should be expanded to accelerate the pace of change. Improving gender sensitivity of curriculum and of the media will contribute to positive socio-cultural change.
- Analyse the legislation toward the issue that more affect women and their rights such as: divorce, abortion, rape, domestic violence, incest, trafficking, sexual harassment, female genital mutilation, economic and labour law. Constitutional safeguards such as maternity relief, and other provisions should be strictly followed.
- Identify the needs of minority women at local level. Identify the tools and methods to respond to these needs at local level. Strengthen the skills of participants in order to develop local activities, groups and projects. Share and exchange experiences of the situation of young minority women. Discuss different methods and initiatives of good practices. Provide them educational tools and methods for developing women’s activities on national and international level. Provide a space for discussion and development of future leaders.
- Acknowledge similarities between minority groups to be stronger. Minority groups should promote a wide perspective of their culture. Create minority-friendly models of leadership. Develop co-operation between young and old as it is necessary to represent the different experiences. Recognition and action against sexism and male domination within communities; recognition of the difficulties facing some minority women who cross the divide of being a professional working with minorities and at the same time being a minority herself; the need for a forum and space for minority women to develop their skills, confidence and competence are some of the measures to be focused. Minority communities should be open to self-criticism and self-reflection.
- Even a ‘majority’ young woman should work towards empowering minority.
A greater challenge lies in implementing laws and policies that have been put in place by the government and in increasing the budgets and policy impacts so that policies can be fine-tuned to achieve maximum benefits. Without the right kind of leadership these programs cannot exist. Women are employing practical solutions such as the establishment of women’s networks, associations, self-help groups, and capacity building activities. Gender equality, women empowerment and removal of caste barriers are just a few things the Indian society needs to introspect on. The goal of government policies should be to ensure that women have a real voice in governance institutions at all levels, that they have equal participation in public dialogue and influence the decisions that will determine the future of their communities. With the key ingredients of local leadership combined with high-level of commitment at every level, a participatory development process had evolved into a massive movement towards grass-roots empowerment. All women should have the freedom to work if they want to and their choice of work should not be determined by their gender.
Conclusion
Despite many national and international agreements affirming their human rights, Indian women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate. They usually have less access than men to medical care, property ownership, training and employment. They are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence. Where women’s status is low, family size tends to be large, which makes it more difficult for families to thrive. Population and development and reproductive health programmes are more effective when they address the educational opportunities, status and empowerment of women. Over the long term, policies and efforts must take into account the changing political and economic role of women in the region and support it through fostering a more conducive environment for them in policy making. When women are empowered, whole family benefits, and these benefits effect future generations. Women should have freedom to participate more fully and equally in society.
Democracy creates a political framework in which ethnic, religious, and other differences are openly expressed, not suppressed. Democracy provides for the careful management of peacefully expressed differences, a process from which women and minorities should not be excluded. Women’s empowerment is vital to sustainable development and the realization of human rights for all. Much work and effort has gone into the collection of gender disaggregated statistics which would now allow better analysis on these issues. More and more minority women are rising against their subordination, identifying and redressing power imbalances and developing strategies that serve to counter gender discrimination both at the community and national levels. One should find way to involve the community to make women and minorities visible in a positive way. Minorities and majorities should work together, support self-esteem and enhance self-development. The purpose of this paper is merely to ensure a balance between theory, practice and awareness-raising.
In the words of Governor-General Michaelle Jean of Canada, “You exclude women, you fail. You empower women, you empower a nation”.